Motivations and barriers of Vietnamese students towards distance education

54 Journal of Science Ho Chi Minh City Open University – No. 3(15) 2015 – August/2015 
MOTIVATIONS AND BARRIERS OF VIETNAMESE STUDENTS 
TOWARDS DISTANCE EDUCATION 
Tran Vu
1
, Nguyen Quynh Mai
2
1,2
School of Business, International University, VNU-HCM 
Email: nqmai@hcmiu.edu.vn 
(Received: 13 /04/2015; Revised: 13/05 /2015; Accepted:14/08/2015) 
ABSTRACT 
This paper aims to investigate the motivations and barriers of Vietnamese students towards 
the distance education. Quantitative strategy was exploited to conduct this research. The sample 
of 250 students who following the distance education programs in Ho Chi Minh City was 
selected. The results show that four motivation factors and six barrier factors were found. The 
motivations include: perceived benefits, amotivation, no pressure, and follow regulations. The 
barriers are: lack of time and family supports for study; lack of academic skills; lack of 
communications with the college/ school; Lack of Financial resources; technological problems 
and low Social interaction. In addition, research also proved that Perceived benefits and no 
pressure have positive impact on Intention of distance learning while lacking of academic skills 
has negative influence on the intention of distance learning. 
Keywords: Barrier, behavioral intention, distance education, motivation, Vietnamese 
students. 
1. Introduction 
Information technology, computers, 
Internet and its applications have changed the 
world dramatically. There are a lot of areas 
that apply that modern technology effectively 
from military, government administration to 
manufacturing and service areas. That also 
includes the education field. One of the most 
important applications is the online education 
which is considered as an innovation in 
learning. The benefits of distance learning are 
obvious to leaners: lower fees, flexile class 
schedule, save money and time on commuting 
to the campus, and able to learn anywhere, 
any time. Although online learning has 
appeared in Vietnam for a long time in the 
form of English training via website, it has not 
much developed recently. In Ho Chi Minh 
City, there are only few universities have the 
distance education in their programs. Ho Chi 
Minh City Open University (HCMOU) or 
University of Science (HCMUS) is one of the 
universities that provide distance education 
program for the Bachelor Degree focusing on 
areas of information technology, business 
administration, finance – banking, accounting, 
economics law, English, etc. That is the signal 
that distance education is getting known by 
Vietnamese learners. It’s one of the right and 
appropriate channel for them to obtain the 
knowledge beside the traditional education. 
There are a lot of difficulties in 
delivering a good quality distance education 
program in Vietnam. It’s not only the 
infrastructure, but also the quality control. A 
lot of top famous universities in Vietnam do 
 Motivations And Barriers Of Vietnamese Students Towards Distance Education 55 
not provide distance education. It, however, is 
clear to see that more universities are 
considering offering that program to learners 
recently. It does not only increase the 
opportunity to learners, especially for those 
who are not able to follow the traditional 
program, but also increases the competitive 
advantages of the universities. It is able to 
attract more adult learners who want to seek 
for a higher degree but they do not have 
enough time to commute to the campus, or 
they may not live near the campus. 
In general, distance education in 
Vietnam is still in the very beginning phase 
comparing to other countries. There is need to 
have more insight about the learner’s 
motivations and barriers. Therefore, this paper 
aims to (1) define the motivations and barriers 
of Vietnamese students toward distance 
education; (2) evaluate the influence of 
motivations and barriers on intention for 
distance education; and (3) give suggestions 
to program designers and lecturers to improve 
the quality of distance education program. 
2. Literature Review 
Distance Education 
Currently, there are there main terms 
that are used interchangeably: distance 
education (or distance learning), e-learning 
and online learning. The differences are 
coming from the way of learning, material 
delivery, technology and even personal 
perception (Moore, Dickson-Deane, & 
Gaylen, 2011). Distance education is an 
education form that occurs between two 
parties (learners and instructors); it’s held at 
different times and/or places, uses varying 
forms of instructional materials (Moore, 
Dickson-Deane, & Gaylen, 2011). Ellis 
(2004) said that e-learning did not only covers 
content and instructional methods delivered 
via CD-ROM, Internet or Intranet (Benson 
et.al., 2002) but also includes audio, video 
tape, satellite broadcast and interactive TV 
(Clark, 2002). Triacca, Bolchini, Botturi and 
Iversini (2004) made it more complicated by 
adding that e-learning was a type of online 
education. On the other hand, online learning 
is described by most authors as access to 
learning experience via the use of some 
technology (Benson, 2002; Carliner, 2004; 
Conrad, 2002). It’s the more recent version of 
distance education which improves access to 
educational opportunities for learners 
described as both non-traditional and 
disenfranchised (Benson, 2002; Conrad, 
2002). Moreover, it’s not only the 
accessibility to the education through the 
Internet, but also its convenient features such 
as flexibility and ability to promote varied 
interactions (Ally, 2004; Hitltz & Turoff, 
2005; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Online 
learning could be either fully online program 
or hybrid program based on a mix of online 
and face-to-face strategy (Kumarawadu, 
2009). Moreover, an online learning program 
must have at least 80% of content that is 
delivered through the Internet (Allen & 
Seaman, 2011). 
Although there are a lot of similarities 
and differences of those three terms, there is 
only one purpose among them. That is 
providing the education to people who cannot 
go to a “physical” school. It gives the learning 
opportunity for individuals. Therefore, in 
order to avoid arguments, this research will 
use the original, most general term: “distance 
education”. Most Vietnamese Universities 
may use the term “distance learning” or 
“distance education”. They have some 
common points such as: instructional 
materials are delivered via either printed or 
electrical version; it’s flexible in time and 
places; mixture of offline (traditional) and 
online learning, etc. 
Motivation 
There are two important sub-concepts 
related to motivation. They are intrinsic 
motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic 
motivation originates inside the individual as 
56 Journal of Science Ho Chi Minh City Open University – No. 3(15) 2015 – August/2015 
a response to the job itself and the 
circumstances surrounding its execution 
(Martin, 2005). On the other hand, an 
extrinsic motivator is one that originates 
outside the individuals and which influence 
their behavior (Martin, 2005). 
From previous researches, the 
motivations for seeking distance education are 
both extrinsic motivators (Kimmel & 
McNeese, 2006) and intrinsic motivators 
(Grabowski & Curtis, 1991; Keller, 1999). 
The research of Kimmel & McNeese (2006) 
has found several motivators based on online 
learners in Canada and U.S. such as desire for 
personal accomplishment, a role model for 
children, desire to finish incomplete program, 
desire for knowledge/skills in the degree field, 
and encouragement from children. On the 
other hand, the intrinsic motivators are more 
complex and affect much to the online 
learners during the program. If the online 
learners demotivated, they may not overcome 
numerous barriers. There are several 
researches about the intrinsic motivational 
factors of online learners. Grabowski & Curtis 
(1991) focused on the influence of 
information and technology to learners like 
usefulness of the information, perceived 
relevance of the information, self-confidence 
in the ability to access and use the 
information, and resulting satisfaction from 
successful access to. Otherwise, the ACRS 
model of Keller (1991) defined what 
encourages learner’s active involvement in 
learning including engaging and maintaining 
learner interests (Attention), relating course 
content to students’ interest (Relevance), 
enhancing student’s confidence in 
understanding course content (Confidence), 
and satisfying students’ inquisitiveness 
related to information (Satisfaction). 
Besides, to motivate online learners, 
program designers and lecturers also take the 
responsibility. Therefore, it’s also important 
to analyze the learners’ expectations to 
distance education programs. Kumarawadu 
(2009) explored the insight of learners’ 
motivations and expectations through the 
characteristics of the ideal online learners, 
the expected achievement of learning, the 
most effective ways to design and operate 
online programs, etc. 
With another viewpoint, Deci and Ryan 
(1985) suggested the theory of Self-
determination. This theory describes different 
types of motivation underlying human 
behaviors. The motivation was categorized 
and listed from high to low levels of self-
determination. They are intrinsic motivation, 
extrinsic motivation and amotivation. The 
elements of the Self-determination theory 
(STD) are illustrated in the following figure. 
Figure 1. Elements of the Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) 
Non-self determined 
Amotivation Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic 
Motivation 
External 
Regulation 
Introjected 
Regulation 
Identified 
Regulation 
Integrated 
Regulation 
Quality 
of 
Behavior Self-determined 
 Motivations And Barriers Of Vietnamese Students Towards Distance Education 57 
The Intrinsic motivation had been 
pointed out previously. In addition to previous 
definition, extrinsic motivation pertains to a 
wide variety of behaviors where goals of 
action extend beyond those inherent in the 
activity itself (Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 
2000). It had been divided into another four 
sub groups that ordered from lower to higher 
levels of self-determination. They are external 
regulation, introjected regulation, identified 
regulation, integrated regulation. 
Besides intrinsic and extrinsic 
motivation, the last element in the SDT is 
amotivation. This was a concept that proposed 
by Deci and Ryan (1985) in order to fully 
understand human behaviors. When 
amotivated, individuals experience a lack of 
contingency between their behaviors and 
outcomes. It’s either intrinsically or 
extrinsically motivated. Amotivation is the 
least self-determined because there is no sense 
of purpose and no expectations of reward or 
possibility of changing the course of events 
(Guay, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2000). 
Barriers 
Many authors agreed that adult learners 
face numerous of challenges and difficulties 
when they are back to school. Mbilinyi (2006) 
stated that adults returning to school face – 
and in many case, overcome – obstacles 
different from those facing younger students. 
In fact, almost adult learners who are seeking 
for the online learning are working, self-
financed or married. They study online to take 
the advantages of flexibility of place and time. 
Therefore, adults worry most about juggling 
school with their family and work 
responsibility (Mbilinyi, 2006). Some 
examples barriers that are found out by 
Mbilinyi (2006) and Kimmel & McNeese 
(2006): the role as primary caregiver in a 
family, lack of childcare for the minor 
child/children, lack of funds for childcare for 
the minor child/children, lack of personal 
funds to pay for the colleges, concern about 
paying back student loans, finding the time 
for school amidst work, family and other 
commitment. In another study, Muilenburg & 
Berge (2005) had found eight groups of 
barriers of students towards online learning. 
They are: Administrative/instructor issues, 
Social interaction, Academic skills, Technical 
skills, Learner motivation, Time and support 
for studies, Cost and access to the Internet, 
Technical problem. Muilenburg & Berge 
(2005) considered Learner motivation as a 
component of Barriers. It indicated that there 
was a relationship between those two 
components. 
Behavioral Intention 
Behavioral intention of distance 
education or online learning learners had been 
investigated in some study with different 
models. There was a study about the 
investigation of students’ behavioral intention 
to use the online learning course websites 
which used the three-tier Technology Use 
Model (Liaw, 2008). It integrates 
multidisciplinary perspective that included 
motivation, social cognitive theory (SCT), 
theory of planned behavior (TBP), and 
technology acceptance model (TAM). 
Another study combined TAM model 
and innovation diffusion theory (IDT) (Chang 
& Tung, 2008) to investigate the behavioral 
intention of online learners. Although 
different model was used, some similarities to 
motivations and barriers were found. Chang & 
Tung (2008) found the factors that affected 
behavioral intention of online learners such as 
compatibility, perceived usefulness, perceived 
ease of use, perceived system quality, 
computer self-efficacy. 
58 Journal of Science Ho Chi Minh City Open University – No. 3(15) 2015 – August/2015 
Figure 2. Research model 
The research model was based on the 
construct of motivation from self-determined 
theory of Deci and Ryan (1985) then was 
developed by (Guay, Vallerand, & 
Blanchard, 2000) and the category of barriers 
of Muilenburg & Berge (2005). Those 
motivations and barriers were examined how 
those influence intention toward distance 
learning of learners. 
3. Research Methodology 
Measurements 
Measurements from previous research 
was collected and refined according to 
research objectives and Vietnamese context. 
The factor of motivation is measured by three 
second-order factors: extrinsic motivation, 
intrinsic motivation, and amotivation. The 
scale that was applied for extrinsic motivation 
was Self-regulation questionnaire developed 
by Williams and Deci (1996) which has two 
subscales: Controlled regulation and 
autonomous regulation. The questionnaire 
was adapted as needed to refer to the distance 
education in Vietnam. Intrinsic motivation 
was measured by Intrinsic Motivation 
Inventory (IMI) which was first developed by 
Deci et.al. (1994). This is a multidimensional 
measurement device including 7 subscales, 
intends to assess participants’ subjective 
experience related to a target activity in 
laboratory experiments. The scale measuring 
amotivation was adopted from the research of 
Guay, Vallerand, ... es are not 
satisfied (CMIN/df = 1.732; CFI = 0.877; TLI 
= 0.864; GFI = 0.787; RMSEA = 0.052) 
suggested for model simplification that means 
reducing number of items. While all the 
constructs have item‘s factor loading more 
than 0.500 except No Pressure scale. 
Variable of not feel nervous (PT1) explain 
44.6 percent of the overall concept, suggested 
for excluding this item from the model. In the 
next round of CFA, the construct of No 
Pressure is measured by two items left. The 
Heywood case occurred in estimation result, 
one item of Pressure/tension construct has 
standardized loading larger than one and the 
error variance is negative. Thus the author 
suggested excluding this construct out of the 
model. The final CFA, there are some 
adjustment based on modification indices to 
improve model fitness indices (CMIN/df = 
1.665; CFI = 0.899; TLI = 0.888; GFI = 
0.806; RMSEA = 0.050). Although some the 
fitness indices did not meet the threshold of 
0.900, the authors accept the analysis result as 
there are numerous variables in the model and 
sample data are not sufficient. 
Table 3. Composite reliability and Composite variance of all constructs 
Factor New constructs Composite 
Reliability 
Composite 
variance 
Motivations 1 Perceived benefit PB 0.898 0.471 
2 Amotivation AM 0.794 0.562 
3 Follow regulations CR 0.649 0.384 
4 No pressure InE 0.812 0.684 
Barriers 5 Lack of time and family 
supports for study 
TSS 0.833 0.607 
6 Lack of academic skills AcS 0.913 0.724 
7 Lack of communications 
with the college/ school 
AcI 0.845 0.441 
8 Lack of Financial resources FnI 0.889 0.727 
9 Technological problems TeI 0.825 0.544 
10 Low Social interaction SoI 0.734 0.482 
Dependent 11 Behavior intention BeIn 0.693 0.545 
The results of EFA and CFA help to 
achieve the initial research objective: 
identifying Motivations and Barriers of 
Vietnamese students towards distance learning. 
In the Motivations factor, except one 
construct which is the combination of 
extrinsic motivation items (autonomous 
regulation) and intrinsic motivation items, the 
new construct is named Perceived benefits. 
This is the biggest pool of item in motivations 
factors since it contains items from other pre-
defined groups such as autonomous 
regulation, perceive of choice, enjoyment and 
value/usefulness. It can be explained that the 
definition of extrinsic motivation, especially 
autonomous regulation, is very closed the 
intrinsic motivations. In case of autonomous 
regulations dominated, a learner follows the 
62 Journal of Science Ho Chi Minh City Open University – No. 3(15) 2015 – August/2015 
distance education because of their sense of 
its significance, not because of their fun or 
interest as intrinsic motivation. In general, the 
learners themselves found this program is so 
useful to them, they could apply their new 
knowledge to the daily work in order to 
improve productivity and feel pretty 
competent. They themselves know exactly the 
value of the program brings to them. Beside 
the benefits of distance education brings to 
adult learners, they are also motivated by 
interest of the program. Moreover, although 
this program is distance education which is 
different to traditional education in Vietnam 
literately, the effect of instructors to students 
(follow regulation) is still remained. Distance 
learners have a high regard for instructors 
whose suggestions and advices are considered 
important and should be followed. The last 
construct of motivations factor is amotivation, 
which was used to assess the study 
orientation/ objectives of the learners. We can 
see that most of students knew their purposes 
when joining this program as most of them 
did not agree to the amotivation questions. 
There is one component of Barriers 
removed from the original survey. The factor 
Lack of technical skills construct was 
eliminated since it may not be applicable to 
Vietnamese students. The distance education 
program is designed as a hybrid program. It’s 
the combination of offline and online 
learning. Offline learning is organized as the 
usual traditional class, with lecturers and 
students meeting in an auditorium. Online 
learning is self-organized learning in which 
students needs to learn by themselves via 
books, electronic devices (such as CD-ROM, 
eBooks, etc.) and the Internet. Therefore, 
Technical skills may not have significant 
influence in this situation. Although distance 
education is in the form of a hybrid program, 
the teaching and learning methodology is 
much different from the traditional education 
program that Vietnamese students used to. 
Therefore, they may feel Low social 
interactions. It’s similar to the traditional 
education program, distance education 
students seem also have barriers in Lack of 
financial resources, Lack of communications 
with academic programs/ schools; and lack of 
academic skills. Lack of time and support 
from family/employer, especially in time 
aspect, that allows distance learners to follow 
and complete the program is quite important 
and significant studying barriers. 
Model testing 
Table 4. Regression coefficients 
 Est P Standardized Regression Weights 
BeIn <-- PB 0.632 *** 0.546 
BeIn <-- AM 0.105 0.279 0.125 
BeIn <-- CR 0.105 0.329 0.102 
BeIn <-- InE 0.205 0.043 0.216 
BeIn <-- TSS 0.085 0.448 0.09 
BeIn <-- AcI 0.189 0.067 0.197 
BeIn <-- AcS -0.198 0.026 -0.226 
BeIn <-- FnI -0.025 0.71 -0.033 
BeIn <-- SoI 0.08 0.463 0.071 
BeIn <-- TeI -0.131 0.117 -0.163 
 Motivations And Barriers Of Vietnamese Students Towards Distance Education 63 
Figure 3. SEM 
From the regression table (Table 4), 
there were three constructs that had 
statistically significant influence to Behavioral 
Intention. Two constructs under motivations 
factors, “Perceived benefits” and “No 
pressure”, have positive effects on intention 
for distance education. The testing result, one 
more time, confirms the values of distance 
education program brings to their students. 
Once an individual self-perceived the value of 
the distance education program, he will 
obviously behave positively such as 
recommend to others or try harder to study. 
“No pressure” reflects the distance learning in 
Vietnamese context, these programs are quite 
easy to be accepted and to follow and very 
flexible compared to offline programs. That is 
also the reason for choosing distance learning 
64 Journal of Science Ho Chi Minh City Open University – No. 3(15) 2015 – August/2015 
programs. On the other side, lack of academic 
skills showed the negative relationship with 
Behavioral intention. Again, it is impossible 
to deny the important role of academic skills 
in distance learning. Lack of academic skills 
like writing, reading, communication and 
language skills will reduce the knowledge 
absorption, competency and confidence of 
students. It could lead to negative behavior 
such as drop off the program. 
5. Discussion and conclusion 
In general, the research’s findings 
support the findings of Guay, Vallerand, and 
Blanchard (2000) in motivations and Kimmel 
& McNeese (2006), Muilenburg & Berge 
(2005) in barriers. Since all of universities in 
this research have not provided distance 
education via internet fully (there is a fact that 
very few Vietnamese universities provide 
that), there were some adjustments to the 
original literature. There were some 
differences between Vietnam and foreign 
distance education (mostly online learning) 
over the world. Four motivation variables 
were found. They are: perceived benefits, 
interest/enjoyment, effect of instructors 
(controlled regulation) and lack of orientation 
(amotivation). There were also six barrier 
factors found including: academic issues, lack 
of academic skills, lack of social interaction, 
financial issues, technology issues and 
support from family/employer. This research 
also identified the motivations and barriers 
that have the influence to the behavioral 
intention of the learners. They were, in 
specify, peceived benefits, interest/enjoyment, 
and lack of academic skills. 
From the results of this study, the 
learners found it’s difficult to contact school’s 
staff, including both administrative and 
academic staffs. The school needs to have 
another effective way to communicate to 
students, so they can help students as soon as 
possible once they have any issues, including 
technical issues. Other academics issues seem 
to be barriers for students. They were material 
quality and teaching methodology. Since 
students did not go to school frequently, 
delivery material should be good in both 
quantity and quality. Finally, there was an 
evidence that students also declared they are 
lacking of academic skills or the prerequisite 
skills to follow distance education program. 
The distance education program designer may 
make more time to supplement those skills for 
students before they join the main program. 
Although distance education requires 
student to study by themselves most of the 
time, the effect of instructors was still an 
important factor as traditional study style. 
Base on the result, the instructor was one of 
the motivators of students. Hence, instructors 
were still an important part of students’ study 
period. However, students may also found it 
difficult in contacting to instructors. 
Therefore, instructors may need to support 
students effectively by creating more contact 
channels such phone, email, forum, video call, 
etc. in order to help students solve their issues 
on time. Moreover, instructors should also 
have another teaching methodology that’s fit 
to the characteristics of distance education. 
Distance education gives prominence to 
self-study. Therefore, students need to find the 
interest, enjoyment in the program and its 
value by themselves. Once they perceived the 
value of the program and had high self-
interest in the program, their motivation will 
be high enough in order to follow and finish 
the program well. 
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